These are the bare bones of the lecture notes. They are not a substitute for attendance, reading or unfetterred and wanton debauchery. They are not even reliable, so if you spot a mistake, wish to add something, or have good links, please send me them.

They are here because I got a miserable "F" in Dr Grainger's Exam, and if they can help me or anybody else, good.

Abbreviations. Not a comprehensive list (obviously) Can you fill in the gaps?

Lecture 1: 8.11.00. Physical and Economic Aspects of Agriculture.

There is considerable and varied interplay between

• Government
• Market
• Environment
• Farmer

To a degree symbiosis and conflict occurs between all these agencies. These lectures will explore that relationship.

Yield = Y_g = f(E_rE_tS_wS_nM)

I.e. The yield of a genotype is a function of

• Energy (radiant)
• Energy (temperature)
• Soil (Water)
• Soil (Nutrients)
• Management

E _t, in reference to yield is expressed as an accumulated temperature above one of three preordained values. If we imagine a sample of temperatures expressed as a stem and leaf plot, E_t is the sum of the leaves, the stem being 0°, 6° or 10° C.

Accumulated temperature is a function of

• Altitude 60%
• Latitude 26%
• Longitude 5%

Potential Transpiration (PT) or Potential Evapotranspiration (PET).

PT - P = PSMD (Potential Soil Moisture Deficit).

In this context Capacity is the amount of water a field holds if free drainage is allowed.

N.B. It might not be easy to work soil at full capacity.

Are areas that get help, e.g. Hill Livestock in the form of compensatory allowances.

Its aims are to maintain

• Livestock
• Population
• Landscape

Economic margins in Agriculture.

GM = O - VC

Gross Margins = Output - Variable Costs

NFI = GM - FC

Net Farm Income = Gross margins - Fixed Costs

Variable Costs might include

• Seasonal Labour
• Fertilisers
• Agrochemicals
• Seed

Fixed Costs might include

• Rent
• Machinery
• Regular Labour

The BIG variable in all these equations is PRICE

Lecture 2: 13.11.00. Environmentally Friendly Agriculture - Three Topics

1. Impacts on Landscape Quality and Wildlife.

The last century can be divided into the following periods of Agriculture/Environment approaches.

1900-47 Conservatism and compatibility. There was no real pressure outside the world wars to increase yield or intensify. Cheap imports meant that the home yield was less important.

1947-81 Concern and Conflict. Government intervention on prices led to intensification, resulting in degradation in the biodiversity of the countryside and the quality of the agro-environment.

1981-2000 Partial reconciliation. The Wildlife & Countryside act of 1981 was an indicator of the concerns of 'environmentalists' being addressed.

The concerns include: -

• Land Drainage
• Agro Chemicals
• Ploughing Pasture
• Habitat Destruction
• Waste Increase
• Waste Disposal
• Soil Stability

2. Environmental Farming.

Organisations.

MAFF; The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food ostensibly deals with environmental farming. Environmental initiatives include

FWAGs; Farming and Wildlife Advisory Groups. Set up initially in 1970 these were groups of locally based farmers, often based in a county town.

ESA's (Environmentally sensitive areas). (MAFF managed) There are currently 38 for example the Lake District and The Pennine Dales.

An ESA is.

• A Site of National Significance.
• A Site where the conservation of the landscape is dependent upon traditional farming practices.

The example we saw, the Dales, was threatened by.

• Intensification using fertilisers and Big Bale Silage.
• Extensification. Larger Holdings leading to infrastructure disrepair, and the populating of villages by non-local commuters/holiday homes.

The Mechanisms vary between local ESA's; nevertheless the Pennine Dales is not untypical in that

• The Area is defined
• Farmers are invited to join on a voluntary basis
• 10 year agreements are forged (in the first instance)
• Payments are made by areas and type
• Payments are made in return for prescribed uses.

The prescriptions are broadly.

• Hedges and Walls must be maintained.
• Historic Landscape elements may not be removed
• No hay cutting before July 8^th(Tier 1) or July 15^th (tier 2).
• No new drainage
• No slurry applications
• No inorganic fertilisers or liming materials.

The payments are.

• £20 per hectare annum.
• £240 per hectare annum for herb rich meadows.

3. NVZs (Nitrate Vulnerable Zones).

In these areas farms are obliged to keep a field by field record of organic and inorganic use. They are MANDATORY. They are where

• High run off rates occur
• Ground water aquifers exist.

Both Organic and inorganic applications are illegal under these circumstances.

• Between 1^st September and 1^st February
• Frozen ground
• Waterlogged ground
• Snow
• Flood
• Steep slopes
• Organic applications cannot be made within 10m of any watercourse
• Slurry and silage barns must conform to leaking regulations.

MAFF Agro/environmental schemes are

Many schemes to promote a harmonic relationship between agriculture and the countryside fall under the remit of the DOE (Department of the Environment).

Lecture 3. 13.11.00 Woodland in the UK Landscape

1. The Holocene Evolution.

We can tell from roots and pollen remains that Britain was populated by Trees.

C.4,500 BC there was 95% cover comprising

• Hazel South West and Ireland
• Lime South East
• Oak Midlands and Northern England
• Birch Scottish Lowlands and Glens
• Pine Scottish Highlands

2 Management

From 1000 to 1500 Laws were passed to

Protect the Vert (Flora)

Protect the Venison (Fauna, particularly the game)

Along with rights and charters encompassing

• Agisting Cattle
• Agistment Grazing
• Botes
• Cheminage
• Pannage (the right to graze pigs, still practised in New Forest)
• Thistletake
• Turbary (the right to cut peat, still exercised in UK)

'Pollarding' and 'Coppicing' were (are) ways of management.

 Lecture 4: 20.11.00 Afforestation in the 20^th Century

1. Policy

We know that the nadir of the UK forest was around the end of the Great War, when only 5% of the island was wooded.

1919 Forestry act addressed this decline

1945 Forestry Act likewise.

It became strategically important to achieve a degree of self- sufficiency in wood. Cheap imports created a dependency, especially in times of crisis.

1972. The treasury made a 'Forestry Cost-benefit study'.

1988. Budget changes.

Cost Benefit analysis is particularly relevant to forestry, as a long time elapses before any financial gains are returned from planting. Even then returns are relatively low compared with other investments (In the region of 3%)

The following sum is used in calculating the worth of forestry.

(Where C = Costs, B = Benefits, n = years and i= interest rates

(This means that low interest rates favour forestry)

Policy Budget 1988

1. Promote planting, especially Scottish & Welsh upland, English Lowland
2. Schedule B & Schedule D Fiscal allowances abolished
3. Increased planting grants:-

• Broadleaf + 60%
• Conifer + 150%

1. Cost allowances on Capital Gains Tax.
2. Target plant of 33,000 hectares per annum. (This seems, retrospectively, optimistic)

2. MANAGEMENT

There has been a tradition of introduction of forest species to the UK, one of the Earliest being the Douglas Fir in the 16^th century and later, The Larch.

The productivity of successful introduced species can be much higher, e.g.

• The indigenous Scots Pine has a yield of 2m³ per hectare per annum.
• Plantations of Clonal Stika Spruce have 16-22 m3 p.ha.

NB Forestry is a more Intensive employer than much other agriculture.

2. Environmental Problems

1. Windthrow and Fire
2. Competition and Disease
3. Biodiversity
4. Water Quality
5. Landscape

2. "Green" Policy in the 1990’s

Forests provide other things apart from a mere 3% return

Aesthetics, e.g. Lowland Landscape design guidelines are in place.

Wildlife conservation, e.g. there are 300+ forest SSSIs

Recreation, e.g. Forests for people, e.g. National Forest and Community Forest

Lecture 5: 27.11.00 National and Country Parks

A National Park is defined by IUCN Cat II National Parks

1. Extensive natural area
2. Protected from exploitation
3. Responsibility of Government
4. Land owned publicly
5. Protected from occupation

Cat V Protected landscape

1. Outstanding (semi) natural landscape
2. In productive use
3. Responsibility of local government
4. Land mainly privately owned
5. Inhabited

Policy (in the UK) has been set in and by

1942. Scott

1945. Dower
1946. Hobhouse

1949. National Parks and access to countryside act

1957. Ten Parks designated

1968. Countryside act

1972. Local government Act
1973. Sandford (review)

1986. Local Authority special department orders

1988. Broads designated
1989. Edwards 'Fit for the future'

1992. Reorganisation of the countryside office

1995. Environment Act

National Park Administration

Section 61 of the 1995 act gives the purpose of National Parks as

1. Conserving and enhancing the natural beauty, wildlife and cultural heritage.

2. Pursuing…the understanding and enjoyment… of these areas by the public.

And cites mechanism

'The authority shall seek to foster the economic and social well-being of local communities…but without incurring significant expenditure' and 'co-operate with local bodies whose functions include the promotion of social and economic development'

 E.G. The Yorkshire Dales National Park Authority

Has about 100 staff with a budget for an income of c £3 million per annum, received from schemes such as Environmentally sensitive Areas etc. The organisation is set out

'So many demands made by so many self-interested people'

Lake District planning problems

Main management problems

Landscape preservation - Afforestation is the biggest problem.

1936. CPRE and FC struck a gentlemen's agreement

1968. Upland management experiment

1976. Upland management service

1981. Moorland map - had to be produced. Heather moorland has value as a habitat.

Quarter of the Lake District is NT (57,000 ha, 200 Houses, 86 Farms, 4,000 ha woodland, 25,000 Sheep)

'Of all noxious animals, the most noxious is the tourist'

For visitors, the lakes are divided into

Honeypot Areas

Toleration Areas

Quiet Areas.

Access - Country Parks. Countryside act of 1968 states 'A park or pleasure ground for the purposes of providing, or improving opportunities for the enjoyment of the countryside by the public

Lecture 6: 27.11.00 Aims of Nature Conservation in the UK

Motives for wildlife conservation

1820 - 1890 Humanitarian

1870 - 1940 Preservationist

1910 - 1970 Scientific

1970 - Now Popular

Voluntary bodies for nature conservation include (Amongst many)

1889. RSPB

1895. NT (For historic buildings and AONB)

1926. CPRE

1945. Wildfowl and Wetlands trust

1972. Woodland trust

E.g. NT membership has rocketed

In 1912 the SPNR was founded, changed to the RSNC in 1982 and the wildlife Trust in 1994. The WT are county-based trusts, with the local trusts having total ownership. The trust is inviolate. There are 47 separate naturalist trusts.

Lecture 7: 4.12.00. Planning and Management of Nature reserves

1. Voluntary conservation movement
2. State legislature for Nature conservation

1947 Huxley Sub-committee

1949 National Parks and access to countryside act. Set up NNNR's and SSSI's (since there has been a steady rise in NNR's

3. 1977 Nature conservancy review was instigated. (Derek Ratcliffe drew up an extended 'Hit List' of sites) culminating in NCR, a list of c. 750 sites identified to be NNR's. Half sites were woodland, the other half having an even distribution of Coast, Wetlands, Heath and Upland grassland.

N.B. attempts at Marine Nature Reserves (MNR's ) were established at

• Skomer
• Lundy

But were converted to voluntary reserves.

International agreements for nature conservation.

1971. Ramsar convention on Wetlands of international importance, especially of Waterfowl habitat (UX1976)(96 sites)

1979. Bird Directive from the EU on the conservation of wild birds, naming 77 Special Protection Area's (SPA's)

1. Bern Convention. Conservation of European wildlife and habitats

1992 Habitats and species directives on the Bern Convention

Management of Nature reserves

Protection of SSSI's - Quite a few designated by other bodies, - RSPB WT's etc. In 1981 SSSI's were not given full protection. Agreements may be hammered out, normally successful.

Constraints on management

1 Finance - English Nature may help, but some small organisations struggle.

INCA - Industrial Nature Conservation Associations

2 Ownership - All voluntary sites are OK, but state sector is only 28% owned publicly, e.g. Cross Fell, Cwm Idwal

3 Size - Average WT is 30 Hectares, Average National is 700 hectares.

4 Threats to ecological aims and objectives

Management plans are now often in place (These help with governance and funding), but the best-laid plans..

  Lecture 8: 11.12.00 Read Selman Ch 6 (This has got to be a test)